Comparative analysis of quality and safety for post-treatment waste cooking oil to explore its validity according to standards for edible oils Comparative analysis of quality and safety for post-treatment waste cooking oil....
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Abstract
The increasing demand for sustainable and cost-effective alternatives to the relatively expensive edible oils, with increasing population and the negative impact of climate change on oilseed crop productivity, raised claims to reuse post-treatment waste cooking oil (WCO) for human consumption, which is prohibited according to official legislation. Therefore, this novel pioneering study aimed to evaluate quality and safety for WCO samples collected from restaurants and households, subjected to two treatments, cornstarch (CS) and bleaching earth (BE), to investigate its validity according to edible oil standards. Physicochemical, toxicological, microbiological, and aroma evaluations with in vitro cytotoxicity of pre- and post-treatment WCO against the human embryonic kidney cell line (HEK-2) were investigated. Results (P<0.05) of pre- and post-treatment WCO revealed persistent chemical, toxicological, and microbiological contaminants that prevent the possibility for human consumption with the apparent in vitro cytotoxicity against HEK-2 with reduced cell viability. The current traditional treatments performed by individuals (CS) and factories (BE) were insufficient to eliminate the inherent hazards, underscoring the continued invalidity of pre- and post-treatment WCO as a safe edible oil according to the established standards for edible oils.
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References
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Almoselhy R.I.M., Eid M.M., Abd El-Baset W.S., Aboelhassan, A.F.A. Determination of 3-MCPD in some edible oils using GC-MS/MS. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 2021, 64(3): 1639-1652. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejchem.2021.64084.3373
AOAC Official Method 965.33. Peroxide Value of Oils and Fats. (2019). Available at: http://www.aoacofficialmethod.org/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=1&products_id=2886
AOCS Official Method Cc 9a-48. Smoke, Flash, and Fire Points, Cleveland Open Cup Method. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cc-9a-48/1
AOCS Official Method Cc 10b–25 Specific Gravity of Solid Fats and Waxes. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cc-10b-25/1
AOCS Official Method Cc 13e-92 Color of Fats and Oil, Lovibond (ISO Method) Lovibond Method Using Color Glasses Calibrated in Accordance with the Lovibond Tintometer Color Scale. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cc-13e-92/
AOCS Official Method Cd 12b-92. Oil Stability Index. (2024). Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cd-12b-92/1
AOCS Official Method Cd 20-91. Polar Compounds in Frying Fats. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cd-20-91/4
Bogusz, M.J., Abu El Hajj, S., Ehaideb, Z., Hassan, H., Al-Tufail, M. Rapid determination of benzo(a)pyrene in olive oil samples with solid-phase extraction and low-pressure, wide-bore gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and fast liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Journal of Chromatography A, 2004, 1026(1–2): 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2003.11.044
Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 of 20 November 2017 establishing mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in food. Official Journal, 21.11.2017, L304: 24-44. Available at: https://eurlex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2017/2158
Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. Official Journal, 5.5.2023, L119: 103-157. Available at: http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/915/oj
CXS 210-1999 (Last modified 2024). Codex Standard for Named Vegetable Oils (CODEX-STAN 210 - 1999), Codex Alimentarius International Food Standards. Available at: https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius.
Drewnowska, J.M. and Swiecicka, I. Microbiological insight into cold-pressed oils by cultural and metataxonomic analysis. Food Bioscience, 2021, 42(8): 101150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101150
Egyptian Standards (2016). ES 8041/2016. Edible Fats and Oils Not Covered by Individual Standards. (From: ICS: 67.200.10 – Animal and vegetable fats and oils). Amireya, Cairo, Egypt. Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality, 2016. Available at: https://eos.org.eg/en/standard/14438
Egyptian Standards (2022). ES 50-1/2022. Vegetable Fat Products Part 1: Vegetable Ghee (Samna) And Vegetable Shortening. Main Reference: ES: 50-1/2005. Hydrogenated oils and Margarine, Part: 1 – Vegetable Fat Products. (From: ICS: 67.200.10 – Animal and vegetable fats and oils). Amireya, Cairo, Egypt. Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality, 2022. Available at: https://www.eos.org.eg/en/standard/2441
Gharby, S. Refining Vegetable Oils: Chemical and Physical Refining. Scientific World Journal, 2022, 22(1): 6627013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6627013
Ghasemi, M, Turnbull, T, Sebastian, S, Kempson, I. The MTT Assay: Utility, Limitations, Pitfalls, and Interpretation in Bulk and Single-Cell Analysis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021, 22(23): 12827. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222312827
Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Li, C., Chen, X., Peng, W., Aghbashlo, M., Lam, S.S., Tabatabaei, M. Managing the hazardous waste cooking oil by conversion into bioenergy through the application of waste-derived green catalysts: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2022, 424C(2): 127636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127636
ISO 660:2020. Animal and vegetable fats and oils -Determination of acid value and acidity. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2020. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/75594.html
ISO 663:2017. Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Determination of insoluble impurities content. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2022. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/71269.html
ISO 685:2020. Analysis of soaps - Determination of total alkali content and total fatty matter content. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2025. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/69675.html
ISO 2555:2018. Plastics - Resins in the liquid state or as emulsions or dispersions - Determination of apparent viscosity using a single cylinder type rotational viscometer method. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2018. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/70023.html
ISO 3656:2011. Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Determination of ultraviolet absorbance expressed as specific UV extinction. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2025. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/51008.html
ISO 6320:2017. Animal and vegetable fats and oils — Determination of refractive index. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2022. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/71267.html
ISO 6579-1:2017. Microbiology of the food chain - Horizontal method for the detection, enumeration and serotyping of Salmonella. Part 1: Detection of Salmonella spp. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2022. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/56712.html
ISO 6888-1:2021. Microbiology of the food chain - Horizontal method for the enumeration of coagulase-positive staphylococci (Staphylococcus aureus and other species) Part 1: Method using Baird-Parker agar medium. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2021. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/76672.html
ISO 12966-2:2017. Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Gas chromatography of fatty acid methyl esters — Part 2: Preparation of methyl esters of fatty acids. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2017. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/72142.html
ISO 16649-2:2001. Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs - Horizontal method for the enumeration of beta-glucuronidase-positive Escherichia coli. Part 2: Colony-count technique at 44 degrees C using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl beta-D-glucuronide. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2024. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/29824.html
Law No.10 of 1966 (1966). regarding Food Control and regulate circulation thereof, as amended by Law 30 of 1976, Egypt (Record updated on 2019-10-13). Available at: https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC175126
Mitrea, L., Teleky, B.E., Leopold, L.F., Nemes, S.A., Plamada, D., Dulf, F.V., Pop, I.-D., Vodnar, D.C. The physicochemical properties of five vegetable oils exposed at high temperature for a short-time-interval. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 2022, 106(3): 104305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2021.104305
Mosmann, T. Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays. Journal of Immunological Methods, 1983, 65(1-2): 55-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1759(83)90303-4
Tölgyesi Á., Sharma V.K. Determination of acrylamide in gingerbread and other food samples by HILIC-MS/MS: A dilute-and-shoot method. Journal of Chromatography B, 2020, 1136(1): 121933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2019.121933
Tyagi, A., Mahajan, S., Prajapat, G., Shivnani, B., Sawant, D.M., Agrawal, A. A comprehensive review of polymers and their derivatives for enhanced oil recovery. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2025, 13(5): 117601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.117601
Yang, X. and Boyle, R.A. Chapter 3 - Sensory Evaluation of Oils/ Fats and Oil/ Fat-Based Foods. In: Oxidative Stability and Shelf Life of Foods Containing Oils and Fats (M. Hu and C. Jacobsen Eds.). Academic Press and AOCS Press. 2016, рр. 157-185, Print ISBN: 978-1-63067-056-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-63067-056-6.00003-3
Abd El-Baset, W.S., Almoselhy, R.I.M., Abd-Elmageed, S.M.M. Physicochemical characteristics and nutritional value of safflower oil: A potential sustainable crop for Egypt. The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 2024, 8(18): 140-153. https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.8.18.140-153
Almoselhy, R.I.M., Eid, M.M., Abd-Elmageed, S.M.M., Youness, R.A. Using Nanotechnology in Bleaching Vegetable Oils. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 2020, 63(7): 2699-2706. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejchem.2020.23625.2407
Almoselhy R.I.M., Eid M.M., Abd El-Baset W.S., Aboelhassan, A.F.A. Determination of 3-MCPD in some edible oils using GC-MS/MS. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 2021, 64(3): 1639-1652. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejchem.2021.64084.3373
AOAC Official Method 965.33. Peroxide Value of Oils and Fats. (2019). Available at: http://www.aoacofficialmethod.org/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=1&products_id=2886
AOCS Official Method Cc 9a-48. Smoke, Flash, and Fire Points, Cleveland Open Cup Method. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cc-9a-48/1
AOCS Official Method Cc 10b–25 Specific Gravity of Solid Fats and Waxes. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cc-10b-25/1
AOCS Official Method Cc 13e-92 Color of Fats and Oil, Lovibond (ISO Method) Lovibond Method Using Color Glasses Calibrated in Accordance with the Lovibond Tintometer Color Scale. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cc-13e-92/
AOCS Official Method Cd 12b-92. Oil Stability Index. (2024). Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cd-12b-92/1
AOCS Official Method Cd 20-91. Polar Compounds in Frying Fats. (2024) Available at: https://library.aocs.org/Cd-20-91/4
Bogusz, M.J., Abu El Hajj, S., Ehaideb, Z., Hassan, H., Al-Tufail, M. Rapid determination of benzo(a)pyrene in olive oil samples with solid-phase extraction and low-pressure, wide-bore gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and fast liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Journal of Chromatography A, 2004, 1026(1–2): 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2003.11.044
Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 of 20 November 2017 establishing mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in food. Official Journal, 21.11.2017, L304: 24-44. Available at: https://eurlex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2017/2158
Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. Official Journal, 5.5.2023, L119: 103-157. Available at: http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/915/oj
CXS 210-1999 (Last modified 2024). Codex Standard for Named Vegetable Oils (CODEX-STAN 210 - 1999), Codex Alimentarius International Food Standards. Available at: https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius.
Drewnowska, J.M. and Swiecicka, I. Microbiological insight into cold-pressed oils by cultural and metataxonomic analysis. Food Bioscience, 2021, 42(8): 101150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101150
Egyptian Standards (2016). ES 8041/2016. Edible Fats and Oils Not Covered by Individual Standards. (From: ICS: 67.200.10 – Animal and vegetable fats and oils). Amireya, Cairo, Egypt. Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality, 2016. Available at: https://eos.org.eg/en/standard/14438
Egyptian Standards (2022). ES 50-1/2022. Vegetable Fat Products Part 1: Vegetable Ghee (Samna) And Vegetable Shortening. Main Reference: ES: 50-1/2005. Hydrogenated oils and Margarine, Part: 1 – Vegetable Fat Products. (From: ICS: 67.200.10 – Animal and vegetable fats and oils). Amireya, Cairo, Egypt. Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality, 2022. Available at: https://www.eos.org.eg/en/standard/2441
Gharby, S. Refining Vegetable Oils: Chemical and Physical Refining. Scientific World Journal, 2022, 22(1): 6627013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6627013
Ghasemi, M, Turnbull, T, Sebastian, S, Kempson, I. The MTT Assay: Utility, Limitations, Pitfalls, and Interpretation in Bulk and Single-Cell Analysis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021, 22(23): 12827. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222312827
Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Li, C., Chen, X., Peng, W., Aghbashlo, M., Lam, S.S., Tabatabaei, M. Managing the hazardous waste cooking oil by conversion into bioenergy through the application of waste-derived green catalysts: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2022, 424C(2): 127636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127636
ISO 660:2020. Animal and vegetable fats and oils -Determination of acid value and acidity. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2020. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/75594.html
ISO 663:2017. Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Determination of insoluble impurities content. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2022. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/71269.html
ISO 685:2020. Analysis of soaps - Determination of total alkali content and total fatty matter content. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2025. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/69675.html
ISO 2555:2018. Plastics - Resins in the liquid state or as emulsions or dispersions - Determination of apparent viscosity using a single cylinder type rotational viscometer method. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2018. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/70023.html
ISO 3656:2011. Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Determination of ultraviolet absorbance expressed as specific UV extinction. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2025. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/51008.html
ISO 6320:2017. Animal and vegetable fats and oils — Determination of refractive index. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2022. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/71267.html
ISO 6579-1:2017. Microbiology of the food chain - Horizontal method for the detection, enumeration and serotyping of Salmonella. Part 1: Detection of Salmonella spp. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2022. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/56712.html
ISO 6888-1:2021. Microbiology of the food chain - Horizontal method for the enumeration of coagulase-positive staphylococci (Staphylococcus aureus and other species) Part 1: Method using Baird-Parker agar medium. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2021. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/76672.html
ISO 12966-2:2017. Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Gas chromatography of fatty acid methyl esters — Part 2: Preparation of methyl esters of fatty acids. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2017. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/72142.html
ISO 16649-2:2001. Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs - Horizontal method for the enumeration of beta-glucuronidase-positive Escherichia coli. Part 2: Colony-count technique at 44 degrees C using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl beta-D-glucuronide. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2024. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/29824.html
Law No.10 of 1966 (1966). regarding Food Control and regulate circulation thereof, as amended by Law 30 of 1976, Egypt (Record updated on 2019-10-13). Available at: https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC175126
Mitrea, L., Teleky, B.E., Leopold, L.F., Nemes, S.A., Plamada, D., Dulf, F.V., Pop, I.-D., Vodnar, D.C. The physicochemical properties of five vegetable oils exposed at high temperature for a short-time-interval. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 2022, 106(3): 104305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2021.104305
Mosmann, T. Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays. Journal of Immunological Methods, 1983, 65(1-2): 55-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1759(83)90303-4
Tölgyesi Á., Sharma V.K. Determination of acrylamide in gingerbread and other food samples by HILIC-MS/MS: A dilute-and-shoot method. Journal of Chromatography B, 2020, 1136(1): 121933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2019.121933
Tyagi, A., Mahajan, S., Prajapat, G., Shivnani, B., Sawant, D.M., Agrawal, A. A comprehensive review of polymers and their derivatives for enhanced oil recovery. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2025, 13(5): 117601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.117601
Yang, X. and Boyle, R.A. Chapter 3 - Sensory Evaluation of Oils/ Fats and Oil/ Fat-Based Foods. In: Oxidative Stability and Shelf Life of Foods Containing Oils and Fats (M. Hu and C. Jacobsen Eds.). Academic Press and AOCS Press. 2016, рр. 157-185, Print ISBN: 978-1-63067-056-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-63067-056-6.00003-3
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How to Cite
ALMOSELHY, Rania I.M. et al.
Comparative analysis of quality and safety for post-treatment waste cooking oil to explore its validity according to standards for edible oils.
Food Science and Applied Biotechnology, [S.l.], v. 9, n. 1, p. 35-49, mar. 2026.
ISSN 2603-3380.
Available at: <https://www.ijfsab.com/index.php/fsab/article/view/593>. Date accessed: 19 may 2026.
doi: https://doi.org/10.30721/fsab2026.v9.i1.593.