Impact of oak barrel aging on furfural formation in industrially produced grape brandy Impact of oak barrel aging on furfural formation …
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Abstract
Brandy is a traditional spirit widely produced in the Balkan region, where industrial production relies on rectification columns and oak barrel maturation to ensure consistent quality. This study investigated the evolution of furfural, a furanic aldehyde, during oak barrel aging of brandy produced from the Vranec grape variety, one of the most important cultivars in North Macedonia. Wines were obtained by controlled fermentation and subjected to double rectification distillation, yielding distillates containing 80–90% (v/v) ethanol. The distillates were diluted to 40% (v/v) ethanol and matured in medium-toast Hungarian oak barrels for 24 months. Furfural was quantified using a spectrophotometric method based on derivatization with an aniline acetate reagent, following preliminary distillation to eliminate color interferences. Measurements were performed at 0, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months of maturation. Fresh distillates already contained measurable furfural concentrations (0.56–1.12 mg.L-1), originating from thermal sugar degradation during distillation. During barrel aging, furfural concentrations increased progressively, reaching 2.12–3.22 mg.L-1 after 12 months. The most pronounced increase occurred between 12 and 18 months (3.44–6.89 mg.L-1). After 24 months, furfural levels stabilized, indicating a balance between extraction from oak wood and secondary reactions. These results suggest that furfural may serve as a useful indicator of maturation progress and sensory development in industrially produced brandy under the conditions investigated.
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Capuano E., Fogliano V. Acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF): A review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food and mitigation strategies. LWT. Food Science and Technology, 2011, 44(4): 793-810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2010.11.002
Chatonnet P., Dubourdieu D. Comparative study of the characteristics of American white oak (Quercus alba) and European oak (Quercus petraea and Q. robur) for production of barrels used in barrel aging of wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1998, 49(1): 79-85. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1998.49.1.79
Claus M.J., Berglund K.A. Fruit brandy production by batch column distillation with reflux. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 2005, 28(1): 53-67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4530.2005.00377.x
Conner J.M., Paterson A., Piggott J.R. Changes in wood extractives from oak cask staves through maturation of Scotch malt whisky. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 1993, 62(2): 169-174. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740620210
du Plessis H.W., Steger C.L.C., Du Toit M., Lambrechts M. The occurrence of malolactic fermentation in brandy base wine and its influence on brandy quality. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2002, 92(5): 1005-1013. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672. 2002. 01616.x
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Friedemann T.E., Keegan P.K., Witt N.F. Determination of furan aldehydes: Reaction with aniline in acetic and hydrochloric acid solutions. Analytical Biochemistry, 1964, 8(3): 300-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(64)90061-2
Garde-Cerdán T., Rodríguez-Mozaz S., Ancín-Azpilicueta C. Volatile composition of aged wine in used barrels of French oak and of American oak. Food Research International, 2002, 35(7): 603-610. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0963-9969(01)00151-X
Garde-Cerdán T., Ancín-Azpilicueta C. Effect of oak barrel type on the volatile composition of wine: Storage time optimization. Food Science and Technology, 2006, 39(3): 199-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt. 2005.01.009
Guerrero-Chanivet M., Valcárcel-Muñoz M.J., Guillén-Sánchez D.A., Castro-Mejías R., Durán-Guerrero E., Rodríguez-Dodero C., García-Moreno M. de V. Influence of sulfur dioxide, the distillation system and the aging conditions on the final sensory characteristics of brandy. Foods, 2022, 11(21): 3540. https:// doi.org/10.3390/foods 11213540
Hazelwood L.A., Daran J.M., van Maris A.J.A., Pronk J.T., Dickinson J.R. The Ehrlich pathway for fusel alcohol production: A century of research. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2008, 74(8): 2259-2266. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM. 02625-07
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Furfural. In: WHO Food Additives Series (Vol. 46). World Health Organization, Geneva, 2001, 206 pages, Print ISBN: 92-5-104508-9. Available at: https://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v46je01.htm
Kim E., Jun T., Kim A.R., Kwak B.S., Park H. Selective green colorimetric liquid- and solid-based determination of furfural in power transformer insulating fluid. ACS Omega, 2025, 10(33): 37025-37038. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.5c00572
Krüger R.T., Alberti A., Nogueira A. Current technologies to accelerate the aging process of alcoholic beverages: A review. Beverages, 2022, 8(4): 65. https://doi.org/10.3390 /beverages8040065
Léauté R. Distillation in alambic: A historical and technical review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1990, 41(1): 90-103. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1990.41.1.90
Lee K.-Y.M., Paterson A., Piggott J.R., Richardson G.D. Origins of flavour in whiskies and a revised flavour wheel: A review. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 2001, 107(5): 287-313. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2001.tb00099.x
Morales F.J. Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and Related Compounds. In: Process‐Induced Food Toxicants: Occurrence, Formation, Mitigation, and Health Risks, (R.H. Stadler, D.R. LinebackEds.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2009, рр. 135-174, Print ISBN: 9780470074756, eBook ISBN: 9780470430101, https:// doi.org/10.1002/9780470430101.ch2e
Mosedale J.R. Effects of oak wood on the maturation of alcoholic beverages with particular reference to whisky. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research, 1995, 68(3): 203-230. https://doi.org/10.1093/ forestry/68.3.203
Mosedale J.R, Puech J.L. Wood maturation of distilled beverages. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 1998, 9(3): 95-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0924-2244(98)00024-7
Sub-commission of methods of analyses. Enology Commissionof OIV (International Organisation of Vine and Wine). Compendium of International Methods of Analysis of Spirituous Beverages of Vitivinicultural origin. OIV: Dijon, France. 2023, 290 pages. https://www.oiv.int/what-we-do/standards
Patil K. Distillation Operations: Methods, Operational and Design Issues (Version 2). ChemRxiv. 2023, 9 pages. https://doi.org/10.26434/chemrxiv-2022-g36d7-v2
Puech J.L. Characteristics of oak wood and biochemical aspects of Armagnac Aging. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1984, 35(1): 77-81. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1984.35.2.77
Raičević D., Popović T., Jančić D., Šuković D., Pajović-Šćepanović R. The impact of type of brandy on the volatile aroma compounds and sensory properties of grape brandy in Montenegro. Molecules, 2022, 27(9): 2974. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092974
Ribéreau-Gayon P., Dubourdieu D., Donèche B., Lonvaud A. Handbook of Enology: Volume 1. The Microbiology of Wine and Vinifications (2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 2006, 512 pages. Print ISBN: 978-0-470-01034-1; e-Book ISBN: 978-0-470-01035-8, O-Book ISBN /Online Library/: 978-0-470-01036-5, https://doi.org/10.1002/0470010363
Singleton V.L. Oxygen and wine aging: Beyond the bubbles. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1995, 46(2): 196-203. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1995.46.2.196
Śliwińska M., Wiśniewska P., Dymerski T., Wardencki W., Namieśnik J. The flavour of fruit spirits and fruit liqueurs: A review. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 2015, 30(3): 197-207. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.3237
Sumby K.M., Grbin P.R., Jiranek V. Microbial modulation of aromatic esters in wine. Food Chemistry, 2010, 121(1): 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.foodchem.2009.12.004
Swiegers J.H., Bartowsky E.J., Henschke P.A., Pretorius I.S. Yeast and bacterial modulation of wine aroma and flavour. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 2005, 11(2): 139-173. https://doi.org/10.1111 /j.1755-0238.2005.tb00285.x
Syguła E., Łyczko J., Koziel J.A., Białowiec A. Furfural release from lignocellulosic biomass biochars: Environmental and health implications. Industrial Crops and Products, 2025, 237(): 122855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2025.122855
Tarko T., Krąkowski F., Duda-Chodak A. The impact of compounds extracted from wood on the quality of alcoholic beverages. Molecules, 2023, 28(2): 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020620
Wang L., Chen S., Xu Y. Distilled beverage aging: A review on aroma characteristics, maturation mechanisms, and artificial aging techniques. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 2022, 22(1): 502-534. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.13080
Wo X. A comparative study of the important aroma components of brandy and rum. International Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences Research, 2025, 3(1): 8-20. https://doi.org/10.62051/ijafsr.v3n1.02
Yagishita M., Reber O., Alter D., Kölling R., Einfalt D. Effect of partial condensation (dephlegmation) in fruit brandy distillation equipment on the composition of apple brandies. Beverages, 2025, 11(2): 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11020052
Yoncheva T., Stoyanov N., Dimitrov D. Influence of oak wood on the chemical and organoleptic profile of white wines. Food Science and Applied Biotechnology, 2024, 7(1): 79-91. https://doi.org/10.30721/fsab2024.v7.i1.315
Batista F.R.M., Meirelles A.J.A. Computer simulation applied to studying continuous spirit distillation and product quality control. Food Control, 2011, 22(10): 1592-1603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.03.015
Canas S. Phenolic composition and related properties of aged wine spirits: Influence of barrel characteristics. Beverages, 2017, 3(4): 55. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/beverages3040055
Capuano E., Fogliano V. Acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF): A review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food and mitigation strategies. LWT. Food Science and Technology, 2011, 44(4): 793-810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2010.11.002
Chatonnet P., Dubourdieu D. Comparative study of the characteristics of American white oak (Quercus alba) and European oak (Quercus petraea and Q. robur) for production of barrels used in barrel aging of wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1998, 49(1): 79-85. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1998.49.1.79
Claus M.J., Berglund K.A. Fruit brandy production by batch column distillation with reflux. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 2005, 28(1): 53-67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4530.2005.00377.x
Conner J.M., Paterson A., Piggott J.R. Changes in wood extractives from oak cask staves through maturation of Scotch malt whisky. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 1993, 62(2): 169-174. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740620210
du Plessis H.W., Steger C.L.C., Du Toit M., Lambrechts M. The occurrence of malolactic fermentation in brandy base wine and its influence on brandy quality. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2002, 92(5): 1005-1013. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672. 2002. 01616.x
Scientific Panel on Methods of Sampling and Analysis of FSSAI. Manual of Methods of Analysis of Foods: Alcoholic Beverages. 2.0 Determination of Ethyl alcohol content (Third Edition) Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. 2019, 64 pages. Available at: https://fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Manual_Alcoholic_Beverages_04_07_2019.pdf
Friedemann T.E., Keegan P.K., Witt N.F. Determination of furan aldehydes: Reaction with aniline in acetic and hydrochloric acid solutions. Analytical Biochemistry, 1964, 8(3): 300-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(64)90061-2
Garde-Cerdán T., Rodríguez-Mozaz S., Ancín-Azpilicueta C. Volatile composition of aged wine in used barrels of French oak and of American oak. Food Research International, 2002, 35(7): 603-610. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0963-9969(01)00151-X
Garde-Cerdán T., Ancín-Azpilicueta C. Effect of oak barrel type on the volatile composition of wine: Storage time optimization. Food Science and Technology, 2006, 39(3): 199-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt. 2005.01.009
Guerrero-Chanivet M., Valcárcel-Muñoz M.J., Guillén-Sánchez D.A., Castro-Mejías R., Durán-Guerrero E., Rodríguez-Dodero C., García-Moreno M. de V. Influence of sulfur dioxide, the distillation system and the aging conditions on the final sensory characteristics of brandy. Foods, 2022, 11(21): 3540. https:// doi.org/10.3390/foods 11213540
Hazelwood L.A., Daran J.M., van Maris A.J.A., Pronk J.T., Dickinson J.R. The Ehrlich pathway for fusel alcohol production: A century of research. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2008, 74(8): 2259-2266. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM. 02625-07
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: Furfural. In: WHO Food Additives Series (Vol. 46). World Health Organization, Geneva, 2001, 206 pages, Print ISBN: 92-5-104508-9. Available at: https://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v46je01.htm
Kim E., Jun T., Kim A.R., Kwak B.S., Park H. Selective green colorimetric liquid- and solid-based determination of furfural in power transformer insulating fluid. ACS Omega, 2025, 10(33): 37025-37038. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.5c00572
Krüger R.T., Alberti A., Nogueira A. Current technologies to accelerate the aging process of alcoholic beverages: A review. Beverages, 2022, 8(4): 65. https://doi.org/10.3390 /beverages8040065
Léauté R. Distillation in alambic: A historical and technical review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1990, 41(1): 90-103. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1990.41.1.90
Lee K.-Y.M., Paterson A., Piggott J.R., Richardson G.D. Origins of flavour in whiskies and a revised flavour wheel: A review. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 2001, 107(5): 287-313. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2001.tb00099.x
Morales F.J. Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and Related Compounds. In: Process‐Induced Food Toxicants: Occurrence, Formation, Mitigation, and Health Risks, (R.H. Stadler, D.R. LinebackEds.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2009, рр. 135-174, Print ISBN: 9780470074756, eBook ISBN: 9780470430101, https:// doi.org/10.1002/9780470430101.ch2e
Mosedale J.R. Effects of oak wood on the maturation of alcoholic beverages with particular reference to whisky. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research, 1995, 68(3): 203-230. https://doi.org/10.1093/ forestry/68.3.203
Mosedale J.R, Puech J.L. Wood maturation of distilled beverages. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 1998, 9(3): 95-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0924-2244(98)00024-7
Sub-commission of methods of analyses. Enology Commissionof OIV (International Organisation of Vine and Wine). Compendium of International Methods of Analysis of Spirituous Beverages of Vitivinicultural origin. OIV: Dijon, France. 2023, 290 pages. https://www.oiv.int/what-we-do/standards
Patil K. Distillation Operations: Methods, Operational and Design Issues (Version 2). ChemRxiv. 2023, 9 pages. https://doi.org/10.26434/chemrxiv-2022-g36d7-v2
Puech J.L. Characteristics of oak wood and biochemical aspects of Armagnac Aging. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1984, 35(1): 77-81. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1984.35.2.77
Raičević D., Popović T., Jančić D., Šuković D., Pajović-Šćepanović R. The impact of type of brandy on the volatile aroma compounds and sensory properties of grape brandy in Montenegro. Molecules, 2022, 27(9): 2974. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092974
Ribéreau-Gayon P., Dubourdieu D., Donèche B., Lonvaud A. Handbook of Enology: Volume 1. The Microbiology of Wine and Vinifications (2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 2006, 512 pages. Print ISBN: 978-0-470-01034-1; e-Book ISBN: 978-0-470-01035-8, O-Book ISBN /Online Library/: 978-0-470-01036-5, https://doi.org/10.1002/0470010363
Singleton V.L. Oxygen and wine aging: Beyond the bubbles. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1995, 46(2): 196-203. https://doi.org/10.5344/ajev.1995.46.2.196
Śliwińska M., Wiśniewska P., Dymerski T., Wardencki W., Namieśnik J. The flavour of fruit spirits and fruit liqueurs: A review. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 2015, 30(3): 197-207. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.3237
Sumby K.M., Grbin P.R., Jiranek V. Microbial modulation of aromatic esters in wine. Food Chemistry, 2010, 121(1): 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.foodchem.2009.12.004
Swiegers J.H., Bartowsky E.J., Henschke P.A., Pretorius I.S. Yeast and bacterial modulation of wine aroma and flavour. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 2005, 11(2): 139-173. https://doi.org/10.1111 /j.1755-0238.2005.tb00285.x
Syguła E., Łyczko J., Koziel J.A., Białowiec A. Furfural release from lignocellulosic biomass biochars: Environmental and health implications. Industrial Crops and Products, 2025, 237(): 122855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2025.122855
Tarko T., Krąkowski F., Duda-Chodak A. The impact of compounds extracted from wood on the quality of alcoholic beverages. Molecules, 2023, 28(2): 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020620
Wang L., Chen S., Xu Y. Distilled beverage aging: A review on aroma characteristics, maturation mechanisms, and artificial aging techniques. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 2022, 22(1): 502-534. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.13080
Wo X. A comparative study of the important aroma components of brandy and rum. International Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences Research, 2025, 3(1): 8-20. https://doi.org/10.62051/ijafsr.v3n1.02
Yagishita M., Reber O., Alter D., Kölling R., Einfalt D. Effect of partial condensation (dephlegmation) in fruit brandy distillation equipment on the composition of apple brandies. Beverages, 2025, 11(2): 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11020052
Yoncheva T., Stoyanov N., Dimitrov D. Influence of oak wood on the chemical and organoleptic profile of white wines. Food Science and Applied Biotechnology, 2024, 7(1): 79-91. https://doi.org/10.30721/fsab2024.v7.i1.315
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How to Cite
PIPEREVSKI, Aleksandar; DIMOVSKA, Violeta.
Impact of oak barrel aging on furfural formation in industrially produced grape brandy.
Food Science and Applied Biotechnology, [S.l.], v. 9, n. 2, p. 378-389, oct. 2026.
ISSN 2603-3380.
Available at: <https://www.ijfsab.com/index.php/fsab/article/view/686>. Date accessed: 13 oct. 2026.
doi: https://doi.org/10.30721/fsab2026.v9.i2.686.