Physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and shelf-life assessment of spicy candied mulberry chew developed from pomace Development of spicy candied mulberry chew from pomace…
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Abstract
Mulberry pomace shows promise as a functional ingredient for dietary applications. This study aimed to assess the physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant activity, sensory acceptability, and shelf-life of the formulated spicy candied mulberry chew. Shelf life was determined using accelerated shelf-life testing (ASLT) at 25℃, 35℃, and 45℃ to predict shelf life of the product when stored at 37℃. The developed spicy candied chew (75% mulberry pomace and 25% fresh mulberries) exhibited aw of 0.5505±0.01, TSS of 67.57±0.69 °Brix, pH of 3.84±0.06, and TTA of 0.83±0.02%. It also contained a total phenolic content of 2.37±0.07 mg GAE.g-1 and antioxidant activities of 3.81±0.18 and 2.05±0.25 mg Trolox eq.g-1, as measured by ABTS and FRAP, respectively. Microbial analysis revealed that Salmonella spp. were not detected in 25 g samples, Staphylococcus aureus was <10 CFU.g-1, and Escherichia coli was <3 MPN.g-1. Sensory evaluation indicates that positive consumer acceptance ranged from 7.0–7.8 (n = 100). Shelf-life estimation of the product stored at 37℃, based on total plate count using the ASLT method with kinetic reaction models ( and values), was approximately 24 days. The findings indicate that the product provides added value as a functional food and promotes sustainable utilization of fruit-processing by-products.
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AOAC Official Method of Analysis, 17th Edition. Gaithersburg, MD, USA, AOAC International, 2000.
Babazadeh Darjazi B., Jaimand, K. Sugars, total acids and physicochemical characteristics of black mulberry (Morus nigra) genotypes. Journal of Medicinal Plants and By-products, 2023, 2(2): 167-173. https://doi.org/10.22092/jmpb.2022.359701.1496
Bag B.B., Panigrahi C., Gupta S., Mishra H.N. Efficacy of plant-based natural preservatives in extending shelf life of sugarcane juice: formulation optimization by MOGA and correlation study by principal component analysis. Applied Food Research, 2022, 2(2): 100164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100164
Boraste K.T., Raut M.M. Mulberry antioxidant properties: A natural aid for combating chronic diseases. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2025, 14(2): 204-212. https://doi.org/10.22271/phyto.2025.v14.i2c.15291
Chen C., Huang Q., Fu X., Liu R. H. In vitro fermentation of mulberry fruit polysaccharides by human fecal inocula and impact on microbiota. Food and Function, 2016, 7(11): 4637-4643. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6fo01248e
Du H., Wang X., Yang H., Zhu F., Cheng J., Peng X., Lin Y., Liu X. Effects of mulberry pomace polysaccharide addition before fermentation on quality characteristics of yogurt. Food Control, 2023, 153(1): 109900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109900
Garg N., Yadav P., Kumar S. Simultaneous extraction of pectin, fiber, anthocyanin, and oil from mulberry pomace. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 2019, 57(3): 218-220. Available at: https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/45908/1/IJEB%2057(3)%20218-220.pdf
Giri N.A., Bhangale A., Gaikwad N.N., Manjunatha N., Raigond P., Marathe R.A. Comparative study on effect of pomegranate peel powder as natural preservative and chemical preservatives on quality and shelf life of muffins. Scientific Reports, 2024, 14(1): 10307. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61085-4
Gozlekci S., Uzun H.I., Yegin A. Some physico-chemical characteristics of mulberry (Morus alba, Morus laevigata, Morus nigra) species grown in western Turkey. Acta Horticulturae, 2015, 1106(1106): 191-198. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2015.1106.30
Han T., Wang S., Sun Y., Wang M., Liu Q., Liu H., Chen R., Liu D. The moderating effect of sour and spicy interactive perception and its variation model: a predictive tool for optimizing flavors. Food Research International, 2025, 220(11): 117085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117085
Hernández-Carranza P., Ávila-Sosa R., Guerrero-Beltrán J.A., Navarro-Cruz A.R., Corona-Jiménez E., Ochoa-Velasco C.E. Optimization of antioxidant compounds extraction from fruit by-products: Apple pomace, orange and banana peel. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 2016, 40(1): 103-115. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.12588
Jan B., Parveen R., Zahiruddin S., Khan M.U., Mohapatra S., Ahmad S. Nutritional constituents of mulberry and their potential applications in food and pharmaceuticals: A review. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 2021, 28(7): 3909-3921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.03.056
Jedermann R., Ruiz-Garcia L., Lang W. Spatial temperature profiling by semi-passive RFID loggers for perishable food transportation. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 2009, 65(2): 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2008.08.006
Jeon H.L., Oh H.L., Kim C.R., Hwang M.H., Kim H.D., Lee S.W., Kim M.R. Antioxidant activities and quality characteristics of cookies supplemented with mulberry pomace. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition, 2013, 42(2): 234-243. https://doi.org/10.3746/jkfn.2013.42.2.234
Juknienė I., Jonnagiri N.P.K.R., Mačionienė I., Zakarienė G., Stankevičienė J., Sinkevičienė I., Radenkovs V., Andrulevičiūtė V., Zaborskienė G. Sustainable formulation of chewing candies using liver hydrolysates with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Microorganisms, 2025, 13(8): 1882. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13081882
Kattil A., Hamid H., Dash K.K., Shams R., Sharma S. Nutritional composition, phytochemical extraction, and pharmacological potential of mulberry: A comprehensive review. Future Foods, 2024, 9(4): 100295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2024.100295
Khongla C., Yuwang P., Yuwang T., Musika S. Physicochemical, phytochemical and antioxidant properties of organic sweet potato flour and its application in breadstick. Trends in Sciences, 2024, 21(10): 8162. https://doi.org/10.48048/tis.2024.8162
Kim H.J., Shin S.K., Kim M.R. Antioxidant activities and quality characteristics of bread added with dried mulberry pomace. Korean Journal of Food and Cookery Science, 2013, 29(6): 769-776. https://doi.org/10.9724/KFCS.2013.29.6.769
Krishna H., Singh D., Singh R.S., Kumar L., Sharma B.D., Saroj P.L. Morphological and antioxidant characteristics of mulberry (Morus spp.) genotypes. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 2020, 19(2): 136-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2018.08.002
Labuza T.P. Shelf-life Dating of Foods. (First Edition). Food and Nutrition Press, Westport, New Zealand, 1982, pp. 41-88. ISBN-10 0917678141, ISBN-13 978-0917678141.
Li Z., Liu Y., Xiang J., Wang C., Johnson J.B. Diverse polyphenol components contribute to antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic potential of mulberry varieties. LWT, 2023, 173(1): 114308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114308
Louarme L., Billaud C. Evaluation of ascorbic acid and sugar degradation products during fruit dessert processing under conventional or ohmic heating treatment. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 2012, 49(2): 184-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.12.035
Makhoul G., Mahfoud H., Baroudi H. Some chemical characteristics of white (Morus alba L.) and black (Morus nigra L.) mulberry phenotypes in Tartus, Syria. International Journal of Agriculture & Environment Science, 2017, 4(2): 53-62. https://doi.org/10.14445/23942568/IJAES-V4I2P110
Miljković V., Nikolić G., Mihajlov-Krstev T.M., Arsić B. Antibacterial activities of fruit extracts of three mulberry species (Morus alba L., Morus rubra L., and Morus nigra L.) and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.). Acta Medica Medianae, 2018, 57(3): 5-12. https://doi.org/10.5633/amm.2018.0301
Mohanty A., Shilpa Meena S.S. Chapter 4-Microbial adaptation to extreme temperatures: an overview of molecular mechanisms to industrial application. In: Extremozymes and their industrial applications (N. K. Arora, S. Agnihotri, & J. Mishra (Eds.). Elsevier, 2022, pp. 115-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90274-8.00009-5
Musika S., Aupari P., Bunmathon W., Kupradit C., Ranok A., Mangkalanan S., Khongla C. Development of goat milk yogurt gummy jelly fortified with calcium and collagen. Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology, 2022, 29(6): 20020(1-9). Available at: https://ird.sut.ac.th/journal/sjst/#/los/manuscript/25337
Parida S., Rayaguru K. Mulberry cultivation and its phytochemical benefits: a review. Journal of Natural Remedies, 2020, 21(5): 33.
Rohela G.K., Shukla P., Muttanna K.R., Chowdhury S.R. Mulberry (Morus spp.): an ideal plant for sustainable development. Trees, Forests and People, 2020, 2(4): 100011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2020.100011
Sulaiman I., Armita D.Y., Erika C. Shelf-life prediction of nutmeg candy (myristica fragrans houtt) using the Arrhenius equation approach's accelerated shelf-life testing (ASLT) method. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2024, 1290(1): 012001. https://doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1290/1/012001
Suriyaprom S., Kaewkod T., Promputtha I., Desvaux M., Tragoolpua Y. Evaluation of antioxidant and antibacterial activities of white mulberry (Morus alba L.) fruit extracts. Plants, 2021, 10(12): 2736. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10122736
Szekelyhidi R., Giczi Z., Pallag R., Lakatos E., Sik B. Physicochemical and textural properties of gummy candies prepared with fruit vinegar. Applied Food Research, 2024, 4(2): 100473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2024.100473
Ta T.M.N., Hoang C.H., Nguyen T.M., Le V.M., Tran T.T.T., Ton N.M.N. Effects of mulberry pomace addition and transglutaminase treatment on the quality of pasta enriched with antioxidants and dietary fiber. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2023, 73(4): 301-310. https://doi.org/10.31883/pjfns/172244
Thai Industrial Standards Institute (TISI). Thai Community Product Standards: Spicy candied fruits and vegetables (No. 521/2015). Bangkok, Thailand, 2015. Available at: https://tcps.tisi.go.th/pub/tcps0521_58.pdf
Turan I., Demir S., Kilinc K., Burnaz N.A., Yaman S.O., Akbulut K., Mentese A., Aliyazicioglu Y., Deger O. Antiproliferative and apoptotic effect of Morus nigra extract on human prostate cancer cells. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 2017, 25(2): 241-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2016.06.002
United States Food and Drug Administration (U.S. FDA). Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM). Virginia, USA, 1998. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/food/laboratory-methods-food/bacteriological-analytical-manual-bam
Vergara L.P., Reissig G.N., Zambiasi R.C., Rodrigues R.D.S., Chim J.F. Red pitanga chewable candies: physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characterization. Food Science and Technology, 2022, 42: e08121. https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.08121
Vojvodić Cebin A., Bunić M., Mandura Jarić A., Šeremet D., Komes D. Physicochemical and sensory stability evaluation of gummy candies fortified with mountain germander extract and prebiotics. Polymers, 2024, 16(2): 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16020259
Yadav N., Kumari N., Chauhan A. K., Verma T. Development of functional candy with banana, ginger and skim milk powder as a source of phenolics and antioxidants. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science, 2021, 9(3): 855-865. https://doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.9.3.13
Zeb A. Concept, mechanism, and applications of phenolic antioxidants in foods. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 2020, 44(9): e13394. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13394
Anggraini A., Sayuti K., Yenrina R. Accelerated shelf life test (ASLT) method with Arrhenius approach for shelf life estimation of sugar palm fruit jam with addition of Asian melastome (Melastoma malabathricum, L.) on jar packaging and pouch. Journal of Applied Agricultural Science and Technology, 2019, 3(2): 268-279. https://doi.org/10.32530/jaast.v3i2.114
AOAC Official Method of Analysis, 17th Edition. Gaithersburg, MD, USA, AOAC International, 2000.
Babazadeh Darjazi B., Jaimand, K. Sugars, total acids and physicochemical characteristics of black mulberry (Morus nigra) genotypes. Journal of Medicinal Plants and By-products, 2023, 2(2): 167-173. https://doi.org/10.22092/jmpb.2022.359701.1496
Bag B.B., Panigrahi C., Gupta S., Mishra H.N. Efficacy of plant-based natural preservatives in extending shelf life of sugarcane juice: formulation optimization by MOGA and correlation study by principal component analysis. Applied Food Research, 2022, 2(2): 100164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100164
Boraste K.T., Raut M.M. Mulberry antioxidant properties: A natural aid for combating chronic diseases. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2025, 14(2): 204-212. https://doi.org/10.22271/phyto.2025.v14.i2c.15291
Chen C., Huang Q., Fu X., Liu R. H. In vitro fermentation of mulberry fruit polysaccharides by human fecal inocula and impact on microbiota. Food and Function, 2016, 7(11): 4637-4643. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6fo01248e
Du H., Wang X., Yang H., Zhu F., Cheng J., Peng X., Lin Y., Liu X. Effects of mulberry pomace polysaccharide addition before fermentation on quality characteristics of yogurt. Food Control, 2023, 153(1): 109900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109900
Garg N., Yadav P., Kumar S. Simultaneous extraction of pectin, fiber, anthocyanin, and oil from mulberry pomace. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 2019, 57(3): 218-220. Available at: https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/45908/1/IJEB%2057(3)%20218-220.pdf
Giri N.A., Bhangale A., Gaikwad N.N., Manjunatha N., Raigond P., Marathe R.A. Comparative study on effect of pomegranate peel powder as natural preservative and chemical preservatives on quality and shelf life of muffins. Scientific Reports, 2024, 14(1): 10307. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61085-4
Gozlekci S., Uzun H.I., Yegin A. Some physico-chemical characteristics of mulberry (Morus alba, Morus laevigata, Morus nigra) species grown in western Turkey. Acta Horticulturae, 2015, 1106(1106): 191-198. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2015.1106.30
Han T., Wang S., Sun Y., Wang M., Liu Q., Liu H., Chen R., Liu D. The moderating effect of sour and spicy interactive perception and its variation model: a predictive tool for optimizing flavors. Food Research International, 2025, 220(11): 117085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117085
Hernández-Carranza P., Ávila-Sosa R., Guerrero-Beltrán J.A., Navarro-Cruz A.R., Corona-Jiménez E., Ochoa-Velasco C.E. Optimization of antioxidant compounds extraction from fruit by-products: Apple pomace, orange and banana peel. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 2016, 40(1): 103-115. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.12588
Jan B., Parveen R., Zahiruddin S., Khan M.U., Mohapatra S., Ahmad S. Nutritional constituents of mulberry and their potential applications in food and pharmaceuticals: A review. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 2021, 28(7): 3909-3921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.03.056
Jedermann R., Ruiz-Garcia L., Lang W. Spatial temperature profiling by semi-passive RFID loggers for perishable food transportation. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 2009, 65(2): 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2008.08.006
Jeon H.L., Oh H.L., Kim C.R., Hwang M.H., Kim H.D., Lee S.W., Kim M.R. Antioxidant activities and quality characteristics of cookies supplemented with mulberry pomace. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition, 2013, 42(2): 234-243. https://doi.org/10.3746/jkfn.2013.42.2.234
Juknienė I., Jonnagiri N.P.K.R., Mačionienė I., Zakarienė G., Stankevičienė J., Sinkevičienė I., Radenkovs V., Andrulevičiūtė V., Zaborskienė G. Sustainable formulation of chewing candies using liver hydrolysates with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Microorganisms, 2025, 13(8): 1882. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13081882
Kattil A., Hamid H., Dash K.K., Shams R., Sharma S. Nutritional composition, phytochemical extraction, and pharmacological potential of mulberry: A comprehensive review. Future Foods, 2024, 9(4): 100295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2024.100295
Khongla C., Yuwang P., Yuwang T., Musika S. Physicochemical, phytochemical and antioxidant properties of organic sweet potato flour and its application in breadstick. Trends in Sciences, 2024, 21(10): 8162. https://doi.org/10.48048/tis.2024.8162
Kim H.J., Shin S.K., Kim M.R. Antioxidant activities and quality characteristics of bread added with dried mulberry pomace. Korean Journal of Food and Cookery Science, 2013, 29(6): 769-776. https://doi.org/10.9724/KFCS.2013.29.6.769
Krishna H., Singh D., Singh R.S., Kumar L., Sharma B.D., Saroj P.L. Morphological and antioxidant characteristics of mulberry (Morus spp.) genotypes. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 2020, 19(2): 136-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2018.08.002
Labuza T.P. Shelf-life Dating of Foods. (First Edition). Food and Nutrition Press, Westport, New Zealand, 1982, pp. 41-88. ISBN-10 0917678141, ISBN-13 978-0917678141.
Li Z., Liu Y., Xiang J., Wang C., Johnson J.B. Diverse polyphenol components contribute to antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic potential of mulberry varieties. LWT, 2023, 173(1): 114308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114308
Louarme L., Billaud C. Evaluation of ascorbic acid and sugar degradation products during fruit dessert processing under conventional or ohmic heating treatment. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 2012, 49(2): 184-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.12.035
Makhoul G., Mahfoud H., Baroudi H. Some chemical characteristics of white (Morus alba L.) and black (Morus nigra L.) mulberry phenotypes in Tartus, Syria. International Journal of Agriculture & Environment Science, 2017, 4(2): 53-62. https://doi.org/10.14445/23942568/IJAES-V4I2P110
Miljković V., Nikolić G., Mihajlov-Krstev T.M., Arsić B. Antibacterial activities of fruit extracts of three mulberry species (Morus alba L., Morus rubra L., and Morus nigra L.) and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.). Acta Medica Medianae, 2018, 57(3): 5-12. https://doi.org/10.5633/amm.2018.0301
Mohanty A., Shilpa Meena S.S. Chapter 4-Microbial adaptation to extreme temperatures: an overview of molecular mechanisms to industrial application. In: Extremozymes and their industrial applications (N. K. Arora, S. Agnihotri, & J. Mishra (Eds.). Elsevier, 2022, pp. 115-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90274-8.00009-5
Musika S., Aupari P., Bunmathon W., Kupradit C., Ranok A., Mangkalanan S., Khongla C. Development of goat milk yogurt gummy jelly fortified with calcium and collagen. Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology, 2022, 29(6): 20020(1-9). Available at: https://ird.sut.ac.th/journal/sjst/#/los/manuscript/25337
Parida S., Rayaguru K. Mulberry cultivation and its phytochemical benefits: a review. Journal of Natural Remedies, 2020, 21(5): 33.
Rohela G.K., Shukla P., Muttanna K.R., Chowdhury S.R. Mulberry (Morus spp.): an ideal plant for sustainable development. Trees, Forests and People, 2020, 2(4): 100011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2020.100011
Sulaiman I., Armita D.Y., Erika C. Shelf-life prediction of nutmeg candy (myristica fragrans houtt) using the Arrhenius equation approach's accelerated shelf-life testing (ASLT) method. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2024, 1290(1): 012001. https://doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1290/1/012001
Suriyaprom S., Kaewkod T., Promputtha I., Desvaux M., Tragoolpua Y. Evaluation of antioxidant and antibacterial activities of white mulberry (Morus alba L.) fruit extracts. Plants, 2021, 10(12): 2736. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10122736
Szekelyhidi R., Giczi Z., Pallag R., Lakatos E., Sik B. Physicochemical and textural properties of gummy candies prepared with fruit vinegar. Applied Food Research, 2024, 4(2): 100473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2024.100473
Ta T.M.N., Hoang C.H., Nguyen T.M., Le V.M., Tran T.T.T., Ton N.M.N. Effects of mulberry pomace addition and transglutaminase treatment on the quality of pasta enriched with antioxidants and dietary fiber. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2023, 73(4): 301-310. https://doi.org/10.31883/pjfns/172244
Thai Industrial Standards Institute (TISI). Thai Community Product Standards: Spicy candied fruits and vegetables (No. 521/2015). Bangkok, Thailand, 2015. Available at: https://tcps.tisi.go.th/pub/tcps0521_58.pdf
Turan I., Demir S., Kilinc K., Burnaz N.A., Yaman S.O., Akbulut K., Mentese A., Aliyazicioglu Y., Deger O. Antiproliferative and apoptotic effect of Morus nigra extract on human prostate cancer cells. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 2017, 25(2): 241-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2016.06.002
United States Food and Drug Administration (U.S. FDA). Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM). Virginia, USA, 1998. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/food/laboratory-methods-food/bacteriological-analytical-manual-bam
Vergara L.P., Reissig G.N., Zambiasi R.C., Rodrigues R.D.S., Chim J.F. Red pitanga chewable candies: physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characterization. Food Science and Technology, 2022, 42: e08121. https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.08121
Vojvodić Cebin A., Bunić M., Mandura Jarić A., Šeremet D., Komes D. Physicochemical and sensory stability evaluation of gummy candies fortified with mountain germander extract and prebiotics. Polymers, 2024, 16(2): 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16020259
Yadav N., Kumari N., Chauhan A. K., Verma T. Development of functional candy with banana, ginger and skim milk powder as a source of phenolics and antioxidants. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science, 2021, 9(3): 855-865. https://doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.9.3.13
Zeb A. Concept, mechanism, and applications of phenolic antioxidants in foods. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 2020, 44(9): e13394. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13394
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How to Cite
MUSIKA, Sumalee; YUWANG, Prachit; KHONGLA, Chompoonuch.
Physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and shelf-life assessment of spicy candied mulberry chew developed from pomace.
Food Science and Applied Biotechnology, [S.l.], v. 9, n. 1, p. 65-78, mar. 2026.
ISSN 2603-3380.
Available at: <https://www.ijfsab.com/index.php/fsab/article/view/571>. Date accessed: 19 may 2026.
doi: https://doi.org/10.30721/fsab2026.v9.i1.571.